Multifocality, cone pigment and pupil size
| Order . | Species . | English common name . | Pupil diameter (mm) . | Multifocal optics . | Cone pigment . | Reference (pigment) . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Struthioniformes | Struthio camelus Linnaeus 1758 | Ostrich | 11 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Wright and Bowmaker, 2001) |
| Dromaius novaehollandiae Latham 1790 | Emu | 10 | No | L | (Sillman et al., 1981) | |
| Rhea americana Linnaeus 1758 | Rhea | 10 | ? | S, M, L | (Wright and Bowmaker, 2001) | |
| Sphenisciformes | Spheniscus humboldti Meyen 1834 | Humboldt penguin | 5 | Yes | U, S, L | (Bowmaker and Martin, 1985) |
| Spheniscus magellanicus Forster 1781 | Magellanic penguin | 4.5 | ? | – | – | |
| Pygoscelis adeliae Hombron and Jacquinot 1841 | Adelie penguin | 4.5 | ? | – | – | |
| Pygoscelis papua Forster 1781 | Gentoo penguin | 5 | ? | – | – | |
| Pygoscelis antarcticus Forster 1781 | Chinstrap penguin | 5 | ? | – | – | |
| Aptenodytes patagonicus Miller 1778 | King penguin | 7 | ? | – | – | |
| Aptenodytes forsteri Gray 1844 | Emperor penguin | 7 | No | – | – | |
| Eudyptes chrysolophus Brandt 1837 | Macaroni penguin | 5 | ? | – | – | |
| Strigiformes | Athene cunicularia Molina 1782 | Burrowing owl | 13 | Yes | – | – |
| Bubo virginianus Gmelin 1788 | Great horned owl | 15 | Yes | – | – | |
| Bubo scandiacus Linnaeus 1758 | Snowy owl | 14 | Yes | – | – | |
| Asio flammeus Pontoppidan 1763 | Short-eared owl | 13 | Yes | – | – | |
| Strix nebulosa Forster 1772 | Great grey owl | 14 | Yes | – | – | |
| Strix uralensis Pallas 1771 | Ural owl | 12.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Aegolius funereus Linnaeus 1758 | Boreal owl | 12 | Yes | – | – | |
| Falconiformes | Buteo lineatus Gmelin 1788 | Red-shouldered hawk | 8 | Yes | – | – |
| Haliaeetus leucocephalus Linnaeus 1766 | Bald eagle | 9 | Yes | – | – | |
| Anseriformes | Lophodytes cucullatus Linnaeus 1758 | Hooded merganser | 5 | Yes | – | – |
| Anser anser Linnaeus 1758 | Domestic goose | 7 | No | – | – | |
| Passeriformes | Phylloscopus trochilus Linnaeus 1758 | Willow warbler | 2 | ? | – | – |
| Phylloscopus collybita Vieillot 1817 | Chiffchaff | 2 | Yes | – | – | |
| Fringilla montifringilla Linnaeus 1758 | Brambling | 3 | Yes | – | – | |
| Fringilla coelebs Linnaeus 1758 | Chaffinch | 3 | Yes | – | – | |
| Erithacus rubecula Linnaeus 1758 | European robin | 2.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Emberiza schoeniclus Linnaeus 1758 | Reed bunting | 2.5 | ? | – | – | |
| Troglodytes troglodytes Linnaeus 1758 | Winter wren | 2 | ? | – | – | |
| Cyanistes caeruleus Linnaeus 1758 | Blue tit | 2 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Hart et al., 2000) | |
| Prunella modularis Linnaeus 1758 | Hedge accentor | 1.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Phoenicurus ochruros Gmelin 1774 | Black redstart | 2.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Coraciiformes | Coracias caudatus Linnaeus 1766 | Lilac-breasted roller | 5 | Yes | – | – |
| Psittaciformes | Cacatua goffiniana Finsch 1863 | Tanimbar cockatoo | 6 | Yes | – | – |
| Cacatua sulphurea Gmelin 1788 | Yellow-crested cockatoo | 6 | Yes | – | – | |
| Melopsittacus undulatus Shaw 1805 | Budgerigar | 3 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Bowmaker et al., 1997) | |
| Poicephalus senegalus Linnaeus 1766 | Senegal parrot | 6 | Yes | – | – | |
| Amazona aestiva Linnaeus 1758 | Blue-fronted parrot | 6 | Yes | – | – | |
| Neopsephotus bourkii Gould 1841 | Bourke's parrot | 3 | Yes | – | – | |
| Psittacus erithacus Linnaeus 1758 | Grey parrot | 7 | Yes | – | ||
| Galliformes | Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus 1758 | Western capercaillie | 6 | Yes | – | – |
| Gallus gallus Linnaeus 1758 | Domestic chicken | 6 | No | U, S, M, L | (Bowmaker et al., 1997) | |
| Ciconiiformes | Ciconia ciconia Linnaeus 1758 | White stork | 7 | No | – | – |
| Pelecaniformes | Phalacrocorax carbo Linneaus 1758 | Great cormorant | 7 | ? | – | – |
| Columbiformes | Columba livia Gmelin 1789 | Homing pigeon | 5.5 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Bowmaker et al., 1997) |
| Order . | Species . | English common name . | Pupil diameter (mm) . | Multifocal optics . | Cone pigment . | Reference (pigment) . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Struthioniformes | Struthio camelus Linnaeus 1758 | Ostrich | 11 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Wright and Bowmaker, 2001) |
| Dromaius novaehollandiae Latham 1790 | Emu | 10 | No | L | (Sillman et al., 1981) | |
| Rhea americana Linnaeus 1758 | Rhea | 10 | ? | S, M, L | (Wright and Bowmaker, 2001) | |
| Sphenisciformes | Spheniscus humboldti Meyen 1834 | Humboldt penguin | 5 | Yes | U, S, L | (Bowmaker and Martin, 1985) |
| Spheniscus magellanicus Forster 1781 | Magellanic penguin | 4.5 | ? | – | – | |
| Pygoscelis adeliae Hombron and Jacquinot 1841 | Adelie penguin | 4.5 | ? | – | – | |
| Pygoscelis papua Forster 1781 | Gentoo penguin | 5 | ? | – | – | |
| Pygoscelis antarcticus Forster 1781 | Chinstrap penguin | 5 | ? | – | – | |
| Aptenodytes patagonicus Miller 1778 | King penguin | 7 | ? | – | – | |
| Aptenodytes forsteri Gray 1844 | Emperor penguin | 7 | No | – | – | |
| Eudyptes chrysolophus Brandt 1837 | Macaroni penguin | 5 | ? | – | – | |
| Strigiformes | Athene cunicularia Molina 1782 | Burrowing owl | 13 | Yes | – | – |
| Bubo virginianus Gmelin 1788 | Great horned owl | 15 | Yes | – | – | |
| Bubo scandiacus Linnaeus 1758 | Snowy owl | 14 | Yes | – | – | |
| Asio flammeus Pontoppidan 1763 | Short-eared owl | 13 | Yes | – | – | |
| Strix nebulosa Forster 1772 | Great grey owl | 14 | Yes | – | – | |
| Strix uralensis Pallas 1771 | Ural owl | 12.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Aegolius funereus Linnaeus 1758 | Boreal owl | 12 | Yes | – | – | |
| Falconiformes | Buteo lineatus Gmelin 1788 | Red-shouldered hawk | 8 | Yes | – | – |
| Haliaeetus leucocephalus Linnaeus 1766 | Bald eagle | 9 | Yes | – | – | |
| Anseriformes | Lophodytes cucullatus Linnaeus 1758 | Hooded merganser | 5 | Yes | – | – |
| Anser anser Linnaeus 1758 | Domestic goose | 7 | No | – | – | |
| Passeriformes | Phylloscopus trochilus Linnaeus 1758 | Willow warbler | 2 | ? | – | – |
| Phylloscopus collybita Vieillot 1817 | Chiffchaff | 2 | Yes | – | – | |
| Fringilla montifringilla Linnaeus 1758 | Brambling | 3 | Yes | – | – | |
| Fringilla coelebs Linnaeus 1758 | Chaffinch | 3 | Yes | – | – | |
| Erithacus rubecula Linnaeus 1758 | European robin | 2.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Emberiza schoeniclus Linnaeus 1758 | Reed bunting | 2.5 | ? | – | – | |
| Troglodytes troglodytes Linnaeus 1758 | Winter wren | 2 | ? | – | – | |
| Cyanistes caeruleus Linnaeus 1758 | Blue tit | 2 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Hart et al., 2000) | |
| Prunella modularis Linnaeus 1758 | Hedge accentor | 1.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Phoenicurus ochruros Gmelin 1774 | Black redstart | 2.5 | Yes | – | – | |
| Coraciiformes | Coracias caudatus Linnaeus 1766 | Lilac-breasted roller | 5 | Yes | – | – |
| Psittaciformes | Cacatua goffiniana Finsch 1863 | Tanimbar cockatoo | 6 | Yes | – | – |
| Cacatua sulphurea Gmelin 1788 | Yellow-crested cockatoo | 6 | Yes | – | – | |
| Melopsittacus undulatus Shaw 1805 | Budgerigar | 3 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Bowmaker et al., 1997) | |
| Poicephalus senegalus Linnaeus 1766 | Senegal parrot | 6 | Yes | – | – | |
| Amazona aestiva Linnaeus 1758 | Blue-fronted parrot | 6 | Yes | – | – | |
| Neopsephotus bourkii Gould 1841 | Bourke's parrot | 3 | Yes | – | – | |
| Psittacus erithacus Linnaeus 1758 | Grey parrot | 7 | Yes | – | ||
| Galliformes | Tetrao urogallus Linnaeus 1758 | Western capercaillie | 6 | Yes | – | – |
| Gallus gallus Linnaeus 1758 | Domestic chicken | 6 | No | U, S, M, L | (Bowmaker et al., 1997) | |
| Ciconiiformes | Ciconia ciconia Linnaeus 1758 | White stork | 7 | No | – | – |
| Pelecaniformes | Phalacrocorax carbo Linneaus 1758 | Great cormorant | 7 | ? | – | – |
| Columbiformes | Columba livia Gmelin 1789 | Homing pigeon | 5.5 | Yes | U, S, M, L | (Bowmaker et al., 1997) |
Visual pigments are classified after their spectral absorbance maximums: U,ultraviolet/violet sensitive; S, short wavelength sensitive; M, medium wavelength sensitive; L, long wavelength sensitive. Question marks indicate ambiguous optical characters. Pupil diameters are rough estimations