Limb segment and joint angular velocity (deg. s1) data of both species at different body mass ranges, during walking(û=0.25–0.50)
| . | Stance . | . | . | . | Swing . | . | . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Joint or segment . | Body mass . | Touch-down . | Mid-stance . | Lift-off . | Min. . | Max. . | RAV . | |||||
| Forelimb | ||||||||||||
| Upper arm | <1000 kg | –61±10a | –60±3a | –12±3a | –77±9a | 135±6a | 232±11a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –33±8a | –45±3a,b | –7±6a | –36±7a | 121±8a | 196±13a,b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –30±9a | –42±3b | –25±5a | –48±7a | 124±3a | 204±7b | ||||||
| Forearm | <1000 kg | –45±7a | –67±3a | 70±8a | –128±7a | 224±12a | 344±13a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –48±4a | –57±3b | 78±11a | –104±8b | 197±9a | 312±12a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –47±4a | –50±1c | 66±8a | –92±2b | 168±3b | 266±4b | ||||||
| Forefoot | <1000 kg | –93±9a | –51±3a | –305±10a | –316±16a | 442±12a | 759±26a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –76±17a | –36±2a | –233±28a | –232±34a | 410±36a,b | 699±75a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –91±7a | –33±2a | –285±20a | –341±11a | 364±9b | 710±18a | ||||||
| Elbow joint | <1000 kg | –14±14a | 9±3a | –80±7a | –144±6a | 213±16a | 357±17a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | 26±13a | 13±4a | –89±13a | –140±9a | 152±9a | 303±14a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | 15±14a | 6±3a | –64±12a | –141±9a | 147±7a | 294±11a | ||||||
| Wrist joint | <1000 kg | –60±12a | 16±2a | 375±13a | –428±14a | 387±15a | 816±25a | |||||
| 10003000 kg | –44±14a | 21±2a | –326±30a | –335±44a | 342±23a | 744±84a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –44±6a | 17±2a | –351±28a | –458±13a | 332±11a | 793±22a | ||||||
| Hindlimb | ||||||||||||
| Thigh | <1000 kg | –37±3a | –68±4a | 39±5a | –37±4a | 140±6a | 233±8a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –36±4a | –33±7b | 60±5a | –35±3a | 97±4b | 166±10b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –28±1a | –42±2b | 29±5a | –33±2a | 89±2b | 146±4b | ||||||
| Shank | <1000 kg | –48±9a | –80±5a | –97±4a | –101±4a | 223±7a | 343±11a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –39±4a | –49±10b | –53±4b | –73±5b | 193±4a,b | 290±8a,b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –37±3a | –61±2a,b | –57±3b | –70±3b | 186±5b | 270±6b | ||||||
| Hindfoot | <1000 kg | –68±17a | –57±3a | –250±16a | –305±7a | 289±10a | 594±14a | |||||
| 10003000 kg | –86±10a | –32±6b | –260±13a | –249±17a | 277±15a | 598±21a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –86±6a | –33±2b | –285±13a | –308±8a | 245±6a | 558±9a | ||||||
| Knee joint | <1000 kg | –10±10a | –12±7a | –136±8a | –202±5a | 174±7a | 376±10a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –2±6a | –16±4a | –115±8a,b | –128±7b | 154±4a,b | 289±9b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –8±4a | –19±2a | –86±5b | –122±5b | 149±4b | 269±8b | ||||||
| Ankle joint | <1000 kg | 21±15a | –22±4a | 153±13a | –137±10a | 220±9a | 357±17a | |||||
| 10003000 kg | 48±12a | –17±4a | 207±13a | –120±11a,b | 191±15a | 377±14a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | 49±7a | –28±1a | 227±13a | –99±5b | 252±9a | 360±11a | ||||||
| . | Stance . | . | . | . | Swing . | . | . | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Joint or segment . | Body mass . | Touch-down . | Mid-stance . | Lift-off . | Min. . | Max. . | RAV . | |||||
| Forelimb | ||||||||||||
| Upper arm | <1000 kg | –61±10a | –60±3a | –12±3a | –77±9a | 135±6a | 232±11a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –33±8a | –45±3a,b | –7±6a | –36±7a | 121±8a | 196±13a,b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –30±9a | –42±3b | –25±5a | –48±7a | 124±3a | 204±7b | ||||||
| Forearm | <1000 kg | –45±7a | –67±3a | 70±8a | –128±7a | 224±12a | 344±13a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –48±4a | –57±3b | 78±11a | –104±8b | 197±9a | 312±12a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –47±4a | –50±1c | 66±8a | –92±2b | 168±3b | 266±4b | ||||||
| Forefoot | <1000 kg | –93±9a | –51±3a | –305±10a | –316±16a | 442±12a | 759±26a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –76±17a | –36±2a | –233±28a | –232±34a | 410±36a,b | 699±75a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –91±7a | –33±2a | –285±20a | –341±11a | 364±9b | 710±18a | ||||||
| Elbow joint | <1000 kg | –14±14a | 9±3a | –80±7a | –144±6a | 213±16a | 357±17a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | 26±13a | 13±4a | –89±13a | –140±9a | 152±9a | 303±14a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | 15±14a | 6±3a | –64±12a | –141±9a | 147±7a | 294±11a | ||||||
| Wrist joint | <1000 kg | –60±12a | 16±2a | 375±13a | –428±14a | 387±15a | 816±25a | |||||
| 10003000 kg | –44±14a | 21±2a | –326±30a | –335±44a | 342±23a | 744±84a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –44±6a | 17±2a | –351±28a | –458±13a | 332±11a | 793±22a | ||||||
| Hindlimb | ||||||||||||
| Thigh | <1000 kg | –37±3a | –68±4a | 39±5a | –37±4a | 140±6a | 233±8a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –36±4a | –33±7b | 60±5a | –35±3a | 97±4b | 166±10b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –28±1a | –42±2b | 29±5a | –33±2a | 89±2b | 146±4b | ||||||
| Shank | <1000 kg | –48±9a | –80±5a | –97±4a | –101±4a | 223±7a | 343±11a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –39±4a | –49±10b | –53±4b | –73±5b | 193±4a,b | 290±8a,b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –37±3a | –61±2a,b | –57±3b | –70±3b | 186±5b | 270±6b | ||||||
| Hindfoot | <1000 kg | –68±17a | –57±3a | –250±16a | –305±7a | 289±10a | 594±14a | |||||
| 10003000 kg | –86±10a | –32±6b | –260±13a | –249±17a | 277±15a | 598±21a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –86±6a | –33±2b | –285±13a | –308±8a | 245±6a | 558±9a | ||||||
| Knee joint | <1000 kg | –10±10a | –12±7a | –136±8a | –202±5a | 174±7a | 376±10a | |||||
| 1000–3000 kg | –2±6a | –16±4a | –115±8a,b | –128±7b | 154±4a,b | 289±9b | ||||||
| >3000 kg | –8±4a | –19±2a | –86±5b | –122±5b | 149±4b | 269±8b | ||||||
| Ankle joint | <1000 kg | 21±15a | –22±4a | 153±13a | –137±10a | 220±9a | 357±17a | |||||
| 10003000 kg | 48±12a | –17±4a | 207±13a | –120±11a,b | 191±15a | 377±14a | ||||||
| >3000 kg | 49±7a | –28±1a | 227±13a | –99±5b | 252±9a | 360±11a | ||||||
Values are means ± s.e.m. Identical letters indicate body mass groups within a column that do not differ significantly from each other(P>0.05); angular velocity values that are significantly slower for larger elephants (at this speed) are emphasized in bold. RAV=range of angular velocities (maximal – minimal)