Interspecific comparisons of head and trunk maximum pitch (deg. s–1) and head vertical (cm s–1) velocities relative to space
| . | . | . | Quadrupedal . | . | . | . | . | . | Bipedal . | . | . | . | . | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Velocity . | Gait . | Segment . | Horsea . | Langurbe . | Bonnetbe . | Cynomolguscf . | Japanesedg . | Vervetch . | Humandi . | Humandj . | Humanck . | Gibbondg . | Japanesedg . | |||||||||
| Pitch rotation | Walk | Head | 42(±3) | 241(±27) | 181(±15) | >50 | ∼60–100 | 194(±25) | 9(±3) | 30(±8) | – | 58 | ∼70 | |||||||||
| Trunk | 29(±2) | 129(±11) | 83(±7) | – | – | 87(±9) | 17(±4) | – | 68(±21) | – | – | |||||||||||
| Trot≈Bipedal run | Head | 38(±3) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 72(±20) | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| Trunk | 17(±2) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 147(±22) | – | – | |||||||||||
| Canter=Slow gallop | Head | 105(±11) | 216(±17) | 183(±13) | – | – | 202(±29) | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| Trunk | 67(+5) | 356(+30) | 353(+33) | – | – | 271(±27) | – | – | – | – | – | |||||||||||
| Vertical translation | Walk | Head | 47(±2) | 55(±7) | 38(±1) | – | – | – | – | 25–35l | – | – | – | |||||||||
| Trot≈Bipedal run | Head | 86(±1) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 70–150l | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| Canter=Slow gallop | Head | 139(±6) | 148(±9) | 85(±8) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| . | . | . | Quadrupedal . | . | . | . | . | . | Bipedal . | . | . | . | . | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Velocity . | Gait . | Segment . | Horsea . | Langurbe . | Bonnetbe . | Cynomolguscf . | Japanesedg . | Vervetch . | Humandi . | Humandj . | Humanck . | Gibbondg . | Japanesedg . | |||||||||
| Pitch rotation | Walk | Head | 42(±3) | 241(±27) | 181(±15) | >50 | ∼60–100 | 194(±25) | 9(±3) | 30(±8) | – | 58 | ∼70 | |||||||||
| Trunk | 29(±2) | 129(±11) | 83(±7) | – | – | 87(±9) | 17(±4) | – | 68(±21) | – | – | |||||||||||
| Trot≈Bipedal run | Head | 38(±3) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 72(±20) | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| Trunk | 17(±2) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | 147(±22) | – | – | |||||||||||
| Canter=Slow gallop | Head | 105(±11) | 216(±17) | 183(±13) | – | – | 202(±29) | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| Trunk | 67(+5) | 356(+30) | 353(+33) | – | – | 271(±27) | – | – | – | – | – | |||||||||||
| Vertical translation | Walk | Head | 47(±2) | 55(±7) | 38(±1) | – | – | – | – | 25–35l | – | – | – | |||||||||
| Trot≈Bipedal run | Head | 86(±1) | – | – | – | – | – | – | 70–150l | – | – | – | ||||||||||
| Canter=Slow gallop | Head | 139(±6) | 148(±9) | 85(±8) | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | – | ||||||||||
Overground arena locomotion
Overground natural terrain locomotion
Treadmill locomotion
Overground laboratory flat surface locomotion
Hanuman, common or gray langur (Semnopithecus entellus); Bonnet macaque (Macaca radiata); Dunbar et al., 2004
Cynomolgus, long-tailed or crab-eating macaque (Macaca fascicularis); Xiang et al.,2008
Japanese macaque (Macaca fuscata); Lar, white-handed or common gibbon (Hylobates lar); Hirasaki and Kumakura, 2004
Vervet, grivet, savanna, or African green monkey (Cercopithecus aethiops); Dunbar,2004
Cromwell et al., 2004
Pozzo et al., 1990
Lieberman et al., 2006
Data presented as range values