Alternative (and/or complementary) strategies to phenotypic plasticity in arthropods at low temperatures
| Strategy . | Definition . | Example . |
|---|---|---|
| Specialization | Life stage specialized for overwintering | Eggs, larvae, pupae (Danks,19812; Danks,1999; Leather et al.,1993) |
| Specialized physiology | Freeze tolerance (see text) | |
| Generalization | `General purpose' phenotype is produced | Hypogastrura tullbergi (Hawes et al., 2006) (see text) |
| Bet-hedging | Production of more than one phenotype to spread risk | Speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria) produces two overwintering phenotypes – one that diapauses; one that is winter-active and feeds on grasses during mild winter temperatures(Lees and Tilly, 1981) |
| Cross-resistance/overlapping adaptation | Tolerance achieved by adaptation to other physiological stress | Desiccation tolerance (Ring and Danks,1994) Diapause (e.g. Denlinger, 1991; Pullin, 1996) Anaerobic metabolism (Coulson and Bale,1991; Storey and Storey,2004) |
| Convergence/`accidental' | Tolerance achieved by other (non-stress) adaptation | Cold hardiness of moulting animals – e.g. Tullbergia antarctica(Worland, 2005); Alaskozetes antarcticus (Hawes et al., in press) |
| Strategy . | Definition . | Example . |
|---|---|---|
| Specialization | Life stage specialized for overwintering | Eggs, larvae, pupae (Danks,19812; Danks,1999; Leather et al.,1993) |
| Specialized physiology | Freeze tolerance (see text) | |
| Generalization | `General purpose' phenotype is produced | Hypogastrura tullbergi (Hawes et al., 2006) (see text) |
| Bet-hedging | Production of more than one phenotype to spread risk | Speckled wood butterfly (Pararge aegeria) produces two overwintering phenotypes – one that diapauses; one that is winter-active and feeds on grasses during mild winter temperatures(Lees and Tilly, 1981) |
| Cross-resistance/overlapping adaptation | Tolerance achieved by adaptation to other physiological stress | Desiccation tolerance (Ring and Danks,1994) Diapause (e.g. Denlinger, 1991; Pullin, 1996) Anaerobic metabolism (Coulson and Bale,1991; Storey and Storey,2004) |
| Convergence/`accidental' | Tolerance achieved by other (non-stress) adaptation | Cold hardiness of moulting animals – e.g. Tullbergia antarctica(Worland, 2005); Alaskozetes antarcticus (Hawes et al., in press) |