Peak muscle and tendon stresses in terrestrial animals
| Species (mass, kg) . | Muscle . | σm(kPa) . | σt(MPa) . | Am/At . | Activity . | Method . | Reference . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Horse (270) | Fore DDF | 240 | 45 | 223 | Galloping | Inv. dyn. | 1 |
| Fore SDF | 240 | 34 | 150 | ||||
| Gastrocnemius | 245 | 28 | 114 | ||||
| Human (75) | Triceps surae | 151 | 50 | 167 | Running (4 ms−1) | Inv. dyn. | 2,3 |
| Quadriceps | 255 | — | — | ||||
| Hip extensors | 110 | — | — | ||||
| Triceps surae | 101 | 33 | 167 | High jump | Inv. dyn. | 3 | |
| Quadriceps | 277 | — | — | ||||
| Hip extensors | 120 | — | — | ||||
| Goat (34) | SDF | 58 | 7 | 110 | Canter | In vivo | 4 |
| Gastrocnemius | 72 | 13 | 175 | ||||
| Dog (36) | Triceps surae | 245 | 84 | 296 | Jumping | Inv. dyn. | 5 |
| Red kangaroo (6.6, juvenile) | Plantaris (SDF) | 170 | 42 | 245 | Hopping | Inv. dyn. | 6 |
| Gastrocnemius | 170 | 84 | 275 | ||||
| Rock wallaby (6.6) | Triceps surae | 279 | 39 | 147 | Jumping | Inv. dyn. | 7 |
| 201 | 28 | Hopping | |||||
| Tammar wallaby (4.8) | Plantaris (SDF) | 262 | 37 | 189 | Hopping | In vivo | 8 |
| Gastrocnemius | 227 | 34 | 150 | ||||
| Cat (3.6) | Plantaris (SDF) | 123 | 17 | 140 | Trotting | In vivo | 9* |
| Gastrocnemius | 73 | 8 | 109 | ||||
| Kangaroo rat (0.12) | Triceps surae | 297 | 33 | 120 | Jumping | Inv. dyn. | 10 |
| Guinea fowl (1.3) | Digital flexor-IV | 115 | 8 | 76 | Jumping | In vivo | 11 |
| 130 | 9 | — | Running | ||||
| Lat. gastrocnemius | 133 | 17 | 117 | Jumping | |||
| 40 | 5 | — | Running | ||||
| Mallard duck (1.1) | Gastrocnemius | 121 | 18 | 110 | Running | In vivo | 12 |
| Frog (Xenopus) (0.10) | Plantaris longus | 200 | 4 | 20 | Swimming | In vivo | 13 |
| Species (mass, kg) . | Muscle . | σm(kPa) . | σt(MPa) . | Am/At . | Activity . | Method . | Reference . |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Horse (270) | Fore DDF | 240 | 45 | 223 | Galloping | Inv. dyn. | 1 |
| Fore SDF | 240 | 34 | 150 | ||||
| Gastrocnemius | 245 | 28 | 114 | ||||
| Human (75) | Triceps surae | 151 | 50 | 167 | Running (4 ms−1) | Inv. dyn. | 2,3 |
| Quadriceps | 255 | — | — | ||||
| Hip extensors | 110 | — | — | ||||
| Triceps surae | 101 | 33 | 167 | High jump | Inv. dyn. | 3 | |
| Quadriceps | 277 | — | — | ||||
| Hip extensors | 120 | — | — | ||||
| Goat (34) | SDF | 58 | 7 | 110 | Canter | In vivo | 4 |
| Gastrocnemius | 72 | 13 | 175 | ||||
| Dog (36) | Triceps surae | 245 | 84 | 296 | Jumping | Inv. dyn. | 5 |
| Red kangaroo (6.6, juvenile) | Plantaris (SDF) | 170 | 42 | 245 | Hopping | Inv. dyn. | 6 |
| Gastrocnemius | 170 | 84 | 275 | ||||
| Rock wallaby (6.6) | Triceps surae | 279 | 39 | 147 | Jumping | Inv. dyn. | 7 |
| 201 | 28 | Hopping | |||||
| Tammar wallaby (4.8) | Plantaris (SDF) | 262 | 37 | 189 | Hopping | In vivo | 8 |
| Gastrocnemius | 227 | 34 | 150 | ||||
| Cat (3.6) | Plantaris (SDF) | 123 | 17 | 140 | Trotting | In vivo | 9* |
| Gastrocnemius | 73 | 8 | 109 | ||||
| Kangaroo rat (0.12) | Triceps surae | 297 | 33 | 120 | Jumping | Inv. dyn. | 10 |
| Guinea fowl (1.3) | Digital flexor-IV | 115 | 8 | 76 | Jumping | In vivo | 11 |
| 130 | 9 | — | Running | ||||
| Lat. gastrocnemius | 133 | 17 | 117 | Jumping | |||
| 40 | 5 | — | Running | ||||
| Mallard duck (1.1) | Gastrocnemius | 121 | 18 | 110 | Running | In vivo | 12 |
| Frog (Xenopus) (0.10) | Plantaris longus | 200 | 4 | 20 | Swimming | In vivo | 13 |
DDF, deep digital flexor; SDF, superficial digital flexor; Inv. dyn.,inverse dynamics.
1Biewener(1998); 2Ker et al.(1987); 3Thorpe et al. (1998); 4M. P. McGuigan, E. Yoo and A. A. Biewener (unpublished); 5Alexander(1974); 6Alexander and Vernon (1975); 7C. P. McGowan and A. A. Biewener (unpublished); 8Biewener and Baudinette(1995); 9Herzog et al. (1993); 10Biewener and Blickhan(1988); 11Daley and Biewener (2003); 12Biewener and Corning(2001); 13C. Richards (unpublished).
Stresses determined from in vivo forces recorded by Herzog et al.(1993) and cat tendon areas reported by Pollock and Shadwick(1994).