Metabolic rates of foot-propelled and wing-propelled avian divers when resting in air and water and during diving
| . | Mass (kg) . | Water temp. (°C) . | BMR* (W kg−1) . | Resting in water† . | . | Diving . | . | . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Species . | . | . | . | (W kg−1) . | (× BMR) . | (W kg−1) . | (× BMR) . | Source . | ||
| Foot-propelled divers | ||||||||||
| Aythya fuligula (Af) | 0.597 | 13.6 | 4.80 | 5.38 | 1.1 | 18.68 | 3.9 | Woakes and Butler (1983) | ||
| 0.578 | 23.0 | 4.80 | 5.96 | 1.2 | 13.53 | 2.8 | Bevan and Butler (1992) | |||
| 0.571 | 14.4 | 4.80 | 7.52 | 1.6 | 15.21 | 3.2 | Bevan et al. (1992) | |||
| 0.605 | 7.4 | 4.80 | 10.84 | 2.3 | 18.50 | 3.8 | Bevan and Butler (1992) | |||
| 0.600 | 22.0 | 4.80 | 5.83 | 1.2 | 19.00 | 4.0 | De Leeuw (1996) | |||
| 0.600 | 8.0 | 4.80 | 8.33 | 1.7 | 24.50 | 5.1 | De Leeuw (1996) | |||
| Aythya affinis (Aa) | 0.591 | 13.0 | 4.80 | 7.90 | 1.6 | 21.00 | 4.4 | Stephenson (1994) | ||
| Somateria mollissima (Sm) | 1.79 | 13.7-19.0 | 4.20 | 10.05 | 2.4 | 16.09 | 3.8 | Hawkins et al. (2000) | ||
| Phalacrocorax carbo (Pc) | 2.40 | 12.6 | 3.10 | 14.10 | 4.5 | 31.40 | 10.1 | Schmid et al. (1995) | ||
| Phalacrocorax carbo (Pc) | 2.54 | 5.1 | 3.10 | 14.10 | 4.5 | 29.10 | 9.4 | Grémillet et al. (2003) | ||
| Phalacrocorax aristotelis (Pa) | 1.67 | 9.0 | 4.73 | 19.37 | 4.1 | 22.66 | 4.8 | Present study | ||
| Wing-propelled divers | ||||||||||
| Uria lomvia (Ul) | 0.803 | 20.0 | 8.59 | 8.84 | 1.0 | 21.17 | 2.5 | Croll and McLaren (1993) | ||
| Uria aalge (Ua) | 0.836 | 20.0 | 7.18 | 7.30 | 1.0 | 16.51 | 2.3 | Croll and McLaren (1993) | ||
| Eudyptula minor (Em) | 1.20 | 21.0 | 3.30 | 6.40 | 1.9 | 7.28 | 2.2 | Baudinette and Gill (1985) | ||
| Eudyptula minor (Em) | 1.20 | 10.0 | 3.30 | 8.50 | 2.6 | 12.90 | 3.9 | Bethge et al. (1997) | ||
| Spheniscus humboldti (Sh) | 4.60 | 18.0 | 2.45 | 4.25 | 1.7 | 7.24 | 3.0 | Butler and Woakes (1984) | ||
| Spheniscus humboldti (Sh) | 3.60 | 19.0 | 2.45 | 5.95 | 2.4 | 10.20 | 4.2 | Luna-Jorquera and Culik (2000) | ||
| Pygoscelis antarctica (Pan) | 3.80 | 4.0 | 3.72 | 8.75 | 2.3 | 8.90 | 2.4 | Culik et al. (1994) | ||
| Pygoscelis adeliae (Pad) | 4.00 | 4.0 | 3.72 | 8.36 | 2.2 | 10.80 | 2.9 | Culik et al. (1994) | ||
| Pygoscelis papua (Pp) | 5.50 | 4.0 | 3.89 | 8.19 | 2.1 | 13.70 | 3.5 | Culik et al. (1994) | ||
| Aptenodytes patagonicus (Ap) | 11.50 | 9.1 | 3.50 | 4.65 | 1.3 | 8.40 | 2.4 | Culik et al. (1996) | ||
| Aptenodytes forsteri (Afo) | 23.30 | 1.5-6.1 | 1.98 | 2.14 | 1.1 | 6.57 | 3.3 | Kooyman and Ponganis (1994) | ||
| . | Mass (kg) . | Water temp. (°C) . | BMR* (W kg−1) . | Resting in water† . | . | Diving . | . | . | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Species . | . | . | . | (W kg−1) . | (× BMR) . | (W kg−1) . | (× BMR) . | Source . | ||
| Foot-propelled divers | ||||||||||
| Aythya fuligula (Af) | 0.597 | 13.6 | 4.80 | 5.38 | 1.1 | 18.68 | 3.9 | Woakes and Butler (1983) | ||
| 0.578 | 23.0 | 4.80 | 5.96 | 1.2 | 13.53 | 2.8 | Bevan and Butler (1992) | |||
| 0.571 | 14.4 | 4.80 | 7.52 | 1.6 | 15.21 | 3.2 | Bevan et al. (1992) | |||
| 0.605 | 7.4 | 4.80 | 10.84 | 2.3 | 18.50 | 3.8 | Bevan and Butler (1992) | |||
| 0.600 | 22.0 | 4.80 | 5.83 | 1.2 | 19.00 | 4.0 | De Leeuw (1996) | |||
| 0.600 | 8.0 | 4.80 | 8.33 | 1.7 | 24.50 | 5.1 | De Leeuw (1996) | |||
| Aythya affinis (Aa) | 0.591 | 13.0 | 4.80 | 7.90 | 1.6 | 21.00 | 4.4 | Stephenson (1994) | ||
| Somateria mollissima (Sm) | 1.79 | 13.7-19.0 | 4.20 | 10.05 | 2.4 | 16.09 | 3.8 | Hawkins et al. (2000) | ||
| Phalacrocorax carbo (Pc) | 2.40 | 12.6 | 3.10 | 14.10 | 4.5 | 31.40 | 10.1 | Schmid et al. (1995) | ||
| Phalacrocorax carbo (Pc) | 2.54 | 5.1 | 3.10 | 14.10 | 4.5 | 29.10 | 9.4 | Grémillet et al. (2003) | ||
| Phalacrocorax aristotelis (Pa) | 1.67 | 9.0 | 4.73 | 19.37 | 4.1 | 22.66 | 4.8 | Present study | ||
| Wing-propelled divers | ||||||||||
| Uria lomvia (Ul) | 0.803 | 20.0 | 8.59 | 8.84 | 1.0 | 21.17 | 2.5 | Croll and McLaren (1993) | ||
| Uria aalge (Ua) | 0.836 | 20.0 | 7.18 | 7.30 | 1.0 | 16.51 | 2.3 | Croll and McLaren (1993) | ||
| Eudyptula minor (Em) | 1.20 | 21.0 | 3.30 | 6.40 | 1.9 | 7.28 | 2.2 | Baudinette and Gill (1985) | ||
| Eudyptula minor (Em) | 1.20 | 10.0 | 3.30 | 8.50 | 2.6 | 12.90 | 3.9 | Bethge et al. (1997) | ||
| Spheniscus humboldti (Sh) | 4.60 | 18.0 | 2.45 | 4.25 | 1.7 | 7.24 | 3.0 | Butler and Woakes (1984) | ||
| Spheniscus humboldti (Sh) | 3.60 | 19.0 | 2.45 | 5.95 | 2.4 | 10.20 | 4.2 | Luna-Jorquera and Culik (2000) | ||
| Pygoscelis antarctica (Pan) | 3.80 | 4.0 | 3.72 | 8.75 | 2.3 | 8.90 | 2.4 | Culik et al. (1994) | ||
| Pygoscelis adeliae (Pad) | 4.00 | 4.0 | 3.72 | 8.36 | 2.2 | 10.80 | 2.9 | Culik et al. (1994) | ||
| Pygoscelis papua (Pp) | 5.50 | 4.0 | 3.89 | 8.19 | 2.1 | 13.70 | 3.5 | Culik et al. (1994) | ||
| Aptenodytes patagonicus (Ap) | 11.50 | 9.1 | 3.50 | 4.65 | 1.3 | 8.40 | 2.4 | Culik et al. (1996) | ||
| Aptenodytes forsteri (Afo) | 23.30 | 1.5-6.1 | 1.98 | 2.14 | 1.1 | 6.57 | 3.3 | Kooyman and Ponganis (1994) | ||
Only respirometry studies were included in Table 1. An energetic equivalent of 19.7 kJ l−1 O2 was assumed when transforming oxygen consumption to Watts.
Basal metabolic rate (BMR) values were taken from the following sources: Af and Aa, Daan et al.(1990); Pc, Schmid et al. (1995); Em,Stahel and Nicol (1988); Sh, Drent and Stonehouse(1971); Pan and Pad, Chappell and Souza(1988); Pp, Bevan et al. (1995); Ap, Cherel et al. (1988); Afo,Le Maho et al. (1976).
Resting-in-water rates were taken from Schmid et al.(1995) for Pc and from Culik et al. (1991) for Pan, Pad and Pp.