During early embryogenesis in animals, cells are arranged into a species-specific pattern in a robust manner. Diverse cell arrangement patterns are observed, even among close relatives. In the present study, we evaluated the mechanisms by which the diversity and robustness of cell arrangements are achieved in developing embryos. We successfully reproduced various patterns of cell arrangements observed in various nematode species in Caenorhabditis elegans embryos by altering the eggshell shapes. The findings suggest that the observed diversity of cell arrangements can be explained by differences in the eggshell shape. Additionally, we found that the cell arrangement was robust against eggshell deformation. Computational modeling revealed that, in addition to repulsive forces, attractive forces are sufficient to achieve such robustness. The present model is also capable of simulating the effect of changing cell division orientation. Genetic perturbation experiments demonstrated that attractive forces derived from cell adhesion are necessary for the robustness. The proposed model accounts for both diversity and robustness of cell arrangements, and contributes to our understanding of how the diversity and robustness of cell arrangements are achieved in developing embryos.

Notch signaling exerts multiple roles during different steps of mouse somitogenesis. We have previously shown that segmental boundaries are formed at the interface of the Notch activity boundary, suggesting the importance of the Notch on/off state for boundary formation. However, a recent study has shown that mouse embryos expressing Notch-intracellular domain (NICD) throughout the presomitic mesoderm (PSM) can still form more than ten somites, indicating that the NICD on/off state is dispensable for boundary formation. To clarify this discrepancy in our current study, we created a transgenic mouse lacking NICD boundaries in the anterior PSM but retaining Notch signal oscillation in the posterior PSM by manipulating the expression pattern of a Notch modulator, lunatic fringe. In this mouse, clearly segmented somites are continuously generated, indicating that the NICD on/off state is unnecessary for somite boundary formation. Surprisingly, this mouse also showed a normal rostral-caudal compartment within a somite, conferred by a normal Mesp2 expression pattern with a rostral-caudal gradient. To explore the establishment of normal Mesp2 expression, we performed computer simulations, which revealed that oscillating Notch signaling induces not only the periodic activation of Mesp2 but also a rostral-caudal gradient of Mesp2 in the absence of striped Notch activity in the anterior PSM. In conclusion, we propose a novel function of Notch signaling, in which a progressive oscillating wave of Notch activity is translated into the rostral-caudal polarity of a somite by regulating Mesp2 expression in the anterior PSM. This indicates that the initial somite pattern can be defined as a direct output of the segmentation clock.